Solectron From Contract Manufacturer to Global Supply Chain Integrator Essay Example

Solectron: From Contract Manufacturer to Global Supply Chain Integrator Paper In 1977, Solectron was founded in the wake of the solar energy boom, and primarily focused on making solar energy products. They soon began assembling printed circuit boards for other electronic firms. Solectron was located close to Silicon Valley and its electronic industry, so a number of clients were readily available for its manufacturing services. In the early 1980s, Solectron turned their efforts towards contract manufacturing, which turned the job shop business into an important industry. Solectron began to purchase the manufacturing facilities of its customers, which enabled them to sign long-term supply contracts with them as well as increasing supply to multiple other customers. By the end of the 90s, Solectron had three strategic business units- Technology Solutions, Global Manufacturing, and Global Services. Solectron focused their business on superior customer service and respect for the individual. It was through constant assessment and continuous improvement that Solectron was able to earn the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award two consecutive times, which was a new record. Solectron continued to lead innovation in technological developments, which continued to increase their advantage over their competitors. In 2000, a softening economy led to falling demand for Solectron services, and at one point, Solectron’s inventory rose to an excess of $1 billion. After restructuring for the slower economy, Solectron was optimistic about its future in developing markets. Questions: What value did Solectron provide to its customers, and how did it evolve over time? Value Solectron provided to its customers: We will write a custom essay sample on Solectron: From Contract Manufacturer to Global Supply Chain Integrator specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Solectron: From Contract Manufacturer to Global Supply Chain Integrator specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Solectron: From Contract Manufacturer to Global Supply Chain Integrator specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Cost – President Dr. Winston Chen insisted that lowest cost could only be achieved with highest quality. This element challenged the practice of their competitors. Quality – Solectron’s high focus on high quality electronics manufacturing services was reflected in their receiving the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award twice. The management at Solectron used the award’s evaluation application process as a benchmark for continuous improvement. All of the recommendations were used in many aspects of the company’s operations for improvement. Flexibility – Solectron offered a wide range of products in a number of areas to its customers, including Networking, Telecommunications, and Computers. The strategic acquisitions in the early 1990’s allowed the company to have a broad variety of manufacturing facilities and expand the services offered. Service – The company used the basic principles of superior customer service and respect for the individual to run the company. These principles were evident in their interaction with its customers. For example, they relied heavily on the customer’s input and feedback for continuous improvement and used various measures of customer satisfaction to work towards becoming best manufacturing company in the world. Value evolved over time: Cost – Solectron used their strategy of becoming the premier source of outsourcing for businesses as a strategic advantage. Their volume increased greatly due to their growing number of customers and business. This allowed them to offer reduced prices due to the greater volume purchasing and economies of scale production. Quality – As production quality can be limited to certain physical features and customer specifications, Solectron has shifted towards a more service quality oriented partner while maintaining product superiority. Although the focus on product quality is imperative to maintaining relations with customers, service quality is a significant source of differentiation in an industry that already expects great production capabilities. Flexibility – With increasing production demands from customers along with an extensive range of desirable markets, flexibility must be a key consideration when competing in the EMS industry. Evolving alongside market conditions, Solectron has acquired many facilities in order to accommodate both consumer and locational demands of their customers. By becoming in essence a global supply chain integrator, Solectron is able to utilize each production facility to an optimal level, source from regions where most value is captured, as well as capitalize on market lead-times from close proximity to target markets. Service – Building upon a great foundation of customer service, Solectron has developed to encompass an essential array of services to offer their customers. This cornucopia of services was broken down into three distinct business units, with one supplying each. As stated by Diana Farrell in Beyond Offshoring, the IT/business process outsourcing in a global standpoint has only a 1% annual value of global trade to annual value of industry sales ratio, indicating significant potential for improvement and capitalization of future revenues. By offering these services especially in the EMS industry that is mostly production centered, Solectron is able to differentiate themselves from its competition by offering excellent service competence. Considering this service factor coupled with great product quality, Solectron is very hard to beat in this industry. The technology solutions unit provided modular and embedded systems design and manufacturing systems that customers could utilize to enhance their operational efficiency. The global manufacturing unit allowed Solectron to handle the demands of product manufacturing of their customers. Although contract manufacturing was their main source of revenue, they also offered new product introduction services and pre-manufacturing capabilities to further offer their expertise on production efficiencies and excellent sourcing. The global services unit was essentially Solectron’s formal customer service business unit. This unit offered product repair, upgrades, and maintenance services through both production facilities and service centers. In addition to the product oriented services, this unit also offered service concerning warehousing, logistics, returns management, engineering change management, and end-of-life management. The global materials services supplemented each of the three business units with operational proficiencies such as interactions with suppliers, procurement, optimizing inventories, preparing market forecasts, and providing worldwide logistics support. How has the company been able to successfully integrate its acquisitions? The company successfully integrated its acquisitions by focusing on two important aspects, employees and culture. The success of Solectron was dependent upon Solectron’s ability to leverage the new employees’ intelligence and experience. There was an integration team with members representing the functional areas to plan a business integration process before the acquisitions were even finalized. An even more detailed plan was created upon finalization, which helped the training of new employees to act as a Solectron resource. Analyze the strategic factors behind Solectron’s move from a contract manufacturing supplier to a supply chain integrator. How did globalization help Solectron in this endeavor? Strategic factors behind Solectron’s move: New Business Model – OEMs decided to concentrate their efforts and resources to their core competencies of product definition, engineering, and marketing in order for Solectron to focus on their core competencies of procurement and production. By realigning the focus of their customer’s primary activities, Solectron was able to transition towards their position as a long-term partner rather than a contract manufacturer. From a strategic standpoint, this stance of the global marketplace leverages Solectron with a sustainable competitive advantage; however, it requires extensive global utilization of resources and relationships to be able to supply the customer’s demands. Consolidation and Relocation – The EMS industry had consolidated most of the top tier firms to create fewer, but larger controlling firms. With this consolidation, Solectron’s new global network was developed to be strategically close to customers in emerging markets which allowed them to introduce new products in the areas with the end user with great product-to-market lead-times. This allows Solectron to fulfill its role as the global supply chain integrator for customers with much flexibility and responsive capabilities. o Information Systems – Solectron used technology to its advantage by improving its operation and allowing the customer to optimize their supply chain in different ways. This allowed multiple parties to have access to the same data and information and ultimately reduce the bull whip effect, which fluctuates demand forecasts significantly. Global Supply Chain Integration Services – As a player in the EMS industry, Solectron had to shift their focus to being a strategic option, rather than a tactical option from their customers’ standpoint. To supplement their excellent service from a purely manufacturing view, another point of differentiation that Solectron utilized was their position and culture in customer service. They expect only the highest quality out of their products, services, and employees. To further build upon this idea of customer service, Solectron has organized the firm into three distinct business units including technology solutions, global manufacturing, and global services, which are all supplied by global materials services, covered in detail earlier in the report.

Ancient Olympics Origins and History

Ancient Olympics Origins and History Like so much of ancient history, the origins of the Olympic Games held in Olympia, a district in Southern Greece,  are shrouded in myth and legend.  The Greeks dated events from the first Olympiad (the four-year period between games) in 776 B.C.- two decades before the  legendary founding of Rome, so the founding of Rome can be dated Ol. 6.3 or the third year of the 6th Olympiad, which is 753 B.C.E. The Origins of the Olympic Games Conventionally, the ancient Olympic games began in 776 B.C.E., based on records of stade-length races. The victor of this first Olympic game was Koroibos of Elis, in Southern Greece. However, because the Olympics originated during an era that is not well-documented, the actual date of the first Olympics is disputed. The origins of the ancient Olympics interested the ancient Greeks, who told conflicting, history-laced, mythological aitia (origin stories). The House of Atreus Theory One Olympic origins story is connected with one of the early members of the tragedy-ridden House of Atreus. Pelops won the hand of his bride, Hippodamia, by competing in a chariot race against her father, King Oinomaos (Oenomaus) of Pisa, in Elis. Oinomaos was the son of Ares and the Pleiad Sterope. Pelops, whose shoulder Demeter had once had to replace when she accidentally ate it, conspired to win the race by replacing the kings chariots lynch-pins with ones made of wax. These melted on the course, throwing the king from his chariot and killing him. After Pelops married Hippodamia, he commemorated his victory over Oinomaos by holding the first Olympic Games. These games either expiated his killing or thanked the gods for the victory. According to historian Gregory Nagy, Pindar, in his first Olympian Ode, denies that Pelops served his son to the gods at the infamous feast where Demeter absent-mindedly ate a shoulder chop. Instead, Poseidon abducted Pelops son and repaid Pelops by helping him win that chariot race. The Hercules Theory   Another theory on the  origin of the Olympic games, also from Pindar, in  Olympian X, attributes the Olympic games to the great Greek hero  Hercules  (Hercules or Heracles), who held the games as a thank offering to honor his father,  Zeus,  after Hercules had exacted revenge on King Augeus of Elis. Foolishly, Augeus had defaulted on his promised reward to Hercules for cleansing the stables. The Cronus Theory Pausanias 5.7 says the Olympic origins lie in Zeus victory over Cronus. The following passage elaborates this and also explains musical elements in the ancient Olympics. [5.7.10] Now some say that Zeus wrestled here with Cronus himself for the throne, while others say that he held the games in honor of his victory over Cronus. The record of victors include Apollo, who outran Hermes and beat Ares at boxing. It is for this reason, they say, that the Pythian flute-song is played while the competitors in the pentathlum are jumping; for the flute-song is sacred to Apollo, and Apollo won Olympic victories. A common thread of the stories about the origins of the Olympic games is that the games were instituted following a personal or competitive victory and were intended to honor the gods. When Did the Games Stop? The games lasted for about 10 centuries. In  391 C.E. the  Emperor Theodosius I  ended the games. Earthquakes in 522 and 526 and natural disasters, Theodosius II, Slav invaders, Venetians, and Turks all contributed to destroying the monuments at the site. Frequency of the Games The Ancient Greeks held the Olympics every four  years starting near the summer solstice. This four-year period was known as an Olympiad and was used as a reference point for dating events throughout Greece. Greek poleis (city-states) had their own calendars, with different names for the months, so the Olympiad provided a measure of uniformity. Pausanias, travel writer of the second century A.D, writes about the impossible chronology of a victory in an early footrace by reference to the relevant Olympiads: [6.3.8] The statue of Oebotas was set up by the Achaeans by the command of the Delphic Apollo in the eightieth Olympiad [433 B.C.], but Oebotas won his victory in the footrace at the sixth Festival [749 B.C.]. How, therefore, could Oebotas have taken part in the Greek victory at Plataea [479 B.C.]? A Religious Occasion The Olympics were a religious event for the Greeks. A temple on the site of Olympia, which was dedicated to Zeus, held a gold and ivory statue of the king of the gods. By the greatest Greek sculptor, Pheidias, it stood 42-feet high and was one of the seven  wonders of the Ancient World. The Rewards of Victory Representatives of each polis (city-state) could attend the ancient Olympics and hope to win a victory that would confer great personal and civic honor. So great was the honor that cities considered Olympic victors to be heroes and sometimes fed them for the rest of their lives. The festivals were also important religious occasions and the site was more a sanctuary to Zeus than a city proper. In addition to competitors and their trainers, poets, who wrote victory odes for the winners, attended the games. An Olympic victor was crowned with an olive wreath (laurel wreath was the award for another set of  Panhellenic games, the Pythian games at Delphi) and had his name inscribed in the official Olympic records. Some victors were fed for the rest of their lives by their city-states (poleis), although they were never actually paid. They were considered heroes who conferred honor upon their hometowns. It was  sacrilege to commit a crime, including accepting payment, corruption, and invasion during the games. According to Emeritus Classics Professor Matthew Wiencke, when a cheating competitor was caught, he was disqualified. In addition, the cheating athlete, his trainer, and possibly his city-state were fined- heavily. Participants Potential participants in the Olympics included all free Greek men, except certain felons, and barbarians, during the Classical Period. By the Hellenistic Period, professional athletes competed. The Olympic games were male-dominated. Married women were not allowed to enter the stadium during the games and might be killed if they tried. A priestess of Demeter was present, however, and tere may have been a separate race for women at Olympia. Main Sports The ancient Olympic sporting events were: BoxingDiscus (part of Pentathlon)Equestrian EventsJavelin (part of Pentathlon)JumpingPankrationPentathlonRunningWrestling Some events, like mule-cart racing, loosely, a part of the equestrian events, were added and then not too much later, removed: [5.9.1] IX. Certain contests, too, have been dropped at Olympia, the Eleans resolving to discontinue them. The pentathlum for boys was instituted at the thirty-eighth Festival; but after Eutelidas of Lace-daemon had received the wild olive for it, the Eleans disapproved of boys entering for this competition. The races for mule-carts, and the trotting-race, were instituted respectively at the seventieth Festival and the seventy-first, but were both abolished by proclamation at the eighty-fourth. When they were first instituted, Thersius of Thessaly won the race for mule-carts, while Pataecus, an Achaean from Dyme, won the trotting-race.Pausanias - Jones translation 2d cen

ENGL WEEK 1 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

ENGL WEEK 1 - Assignment Example The similarities of these two types of writings is that they both are effective when it comes to communicating something clear enough to the audience it is meant for (Ellis, et al, 45). The main similarity that they also tend to share is that they all require the competence in grammar for proper written communication. Due to official setting that both academic work and business work require, it is then necessary to deduce that there is requirement for the written communication to be competent in order to avoid issues that may arise regarding misinformation. There are also differences that can be pointed out as far as these two types of writings are concerned. The first is that students write with the purpose of learning whereby in business, writers has the intention to get work done. In scholarly material, the writing is done to demonstrate to which level learning has been accomplished whereby in business setting the writing is to prompt some sort of action to be undertaken by the relevant bodies concerned. The instructor prompts scholarly work whereas business writing is for the complex groups or people that correlate with the company in the likeness of the stakeholders. The content of business writing is based on the thesis of the work provided by the student instructor whereas the in business scenario only what is intended for the audience is included in writing and everything else is added in the

Benefits of renewable energy in the uae Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Benefits of renewable energy in the uae - Essay Example This is due to lack of adequate water supply. The developing cities such as Masdar city, in the United Arab Emirates, primarily rely on the renewable energy to fuel its growth activities. The architectural skills employed by the construction industry within the city are sophisticated and classy. It is anticipated that the rest of the UAE will adopt a similar or more sophisticated architectural skill in the future in order to improve the quality of the buildings and maximize the benefits of the residents. UAE comprises one of the major oil exporters worldwide. Oil has been the major economic pillar in the UAE due to substantial revenue streams from oil export. For decades, the UAE economy has been supported by oil, which has negative consequences to the environment (contributing to global warming). It is time the UAE government considered the exploitation of alternative sources of energy, preferably, the renewable sources. Abu Dhabi is the richest amongst the seven countries of the UAE. The region owns 7.4 % of the world’s oil resources, 3.2 % of global confirmed natural gas supplies, and more than 90 % of the UAE’s oil and natural gas (Abu-Hijleh& Al-Amir, 2013). Abu Dhabi’s GDP is more than half of the federal’s total, and it is presently planning to use about 175 billion dollars on economic diversification in the next six years. Because of its oil wealth, the region’s long-term economic strategy depends widely on a combination of industrialization and overseas investments in the hydrocarbon sectors and energy-intensive sectors due to the existence of the vast amounts of oil oil wealth. In principle, with Abu Dhabi’s oil reserves anticipated to last until the century’s end, its diversification efforts, have never involved an entire shift away from oil resources (Sgouridis et al., 2013). The UAE can be described as a rentier economy due to its immense fossil-fuel resources, timid national

Teaching Activity & Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Teaching Activity & Reflection - Essay Example timulus which is controlled .For knowledge to be acquainted this way, it requires the use of an instructor who must be ready to demonstrate factual knoeledge,measure observe and modify behavior change in a specified direction. Conditioning reinforces behavior through reflex response to stimulus and if antecedents follow a behavior, it leads to consequences including reinforcement, reward and punishment. This is a learning theory that is composed of adoptive learning techniques, structure organization procedures, recognition, creation, reflection and evaluation. It developes conceptual knowledge procedures and techniques and solve problems using mathematical intelligence. This theory is based on generation of knowledge and expertise through interpersonal relations. It is a self directed learning and therefore it calls for motivation, decision making, personal integration and self evaluation. The chief goal of this theory is becoming self motivated with intrinsic motivation which comes from within a person and acts as driving force to accomplish acquisition of skills (Overbaugh and Lin). This is an important introductory step that involves capturing the attention of the student by a way of giving important information on what is required during the activity. It also includes provision of useful steps to be followed. So as a Trainer I will make sure that I have made my learner to understand the guidelines To conclude the challenges faced would include lack of suitable tennis balls, poor mastery of skill taught, poor concentration by students and lack of interest to play. Finally there would be lack of motivation if the learners are not

Supervisory Approaches in Education

Supervisory Approaches in Education In this chapter a review of related literature on instructional supervision and its relationship with professional development is provided. The chapter is divided in to four parts as to enable the reader to follow a logical sequence that includes: history of school supervision, overview of supervision approaches, teachers perception of supervisory processes, and the relationship between supervision and professional development. 2.1 History of School Supervision In many developed countries, such as United Kingdom (UK) and United States, much more attention has been given to inspection than school supervision (Lee, Dig Song, 2008). The Inspectorate of Education had originated from France under Napoleons Regime at the end of the 18th century, and other European counties followed the idea in the 19th century (Grauwe, 2007). For example, in UK, the first two inspectors of schools were appointed in 1883 (Shaw, Newton, Aitkin Darnell, 2003) and in the Netherlands it was started in 1801 (Dutch Education Inspectorate, 2008). The terms inspector and inspection are still being used in various developed and developing countries , including United Kingdom (UK), United States, European countries and some African countries such as Lesotho, Senegal, Tanzania and Nigeria (Grauwe, 2007). Traditionally, inspection and supervision were used as important tools to ensure efficiency and accountability in the education system. Later adherents of the terminologies of inspection and supervision are used by different countries in different ways. As outlined by Tyagi (2010), inspection is a top-down approach focused on the assessment and evaluation of school improvement based in stated standards, where as supervision focus on providing guidance, support and continuous assessment to teachers for their professional development and improvement in their teaching- learning process. Nevertheless, since the demand of teachers for guidance and support rendered from supervisors has increased from time to time, some countries changed the terminology and preferring the term supervisor over that of inspector. According to Grawue (2007), some countries have recently developed more specific terminologies: Malawi, uses education methods advisor, and Uganda teacher development advisor. The concepts of supervision and inspection have been changed frequently in Ethiopian education system and the reason was not clearly pedagogical (Haileselassie, 2001). In 19 42, educational inspection was practiced for the first time, then it was changed to supervision in the late 1960s , again to inspection in mid 1970s and for the fourth time it shifted to supervision in 1994 (Haileselassie,2001). Haileselassie stated that: Apart from perhaps political decisions, one could not come up with any sound educational and pedagogical rationale to justify the continuous shift made in the name. With the name changes made we do not notice any significant changes in either the content or purpose and functions. (Haileselassie, 2001, p. 11-12) From 1994 onwards, supervision has been practiced in Ethiopia decentralized educational management. According to the Education and Training Policy (1994), educational supervision is recognized at the center (Ministry of Education), Regional, Zonal, District (Woreda) and School levels. Instructional supervision at school level is practiced by principals, deputy principals, department head, and senior teachers. However, since the Woreda is the lowest administrative level and had a direct contact with schools, more practical support and guidance are expected from the assigned supervisors at this level. As it is clearly mentioned by the Educational Management, Schools Organization, Finance, and Community Participation Guideline (MoE, 2002), supervisors have the following key responsibilities: Ensuring whether teacher -student relationship is healthy and democratic, teachers are properly executing their tasks, education is based on the needs of students, the relation between schools and community, mobilizing community, ensure the existence of help and respect sprit between teachers and students, provide professional support, follow up and training for teachers. (p. 30-32) 2.2 Overview of Supervisory Approaches According to Blasà © and Blasà © (1998), although many supervisory approaches are collaborative in nature, for long time, supervisory of instruction has been viewed exclusively as an inspection issue. Sergiovanni (1992) described supervision as a ritual they [supervisors and teachers] participate according to well established scripts without much consequence (p. 203). This author continued that today, supervision as inspection can be regarded as an artifact of the past, a function that is no longer tenable or prevalent in contemporary education (p. 204). He explained that though functioned for a considerable span of time, this type of supervision caused negative stereotypes among teachers, where they viewed as subordinates whose professional performance was controlled. Supporting this idea, Anderson and Snyder (1993) stated, because of this, teachers are unaccustomed to the sort of mutual dialogue for which terms like mentoring, peer coaching collegial assistance are coming in to u se (p.1). It should be clear, however, that traditional supervisory approaches should not be removed completely because supervisory authority and control are essential for professional development. Mitchell and Sackney (2000) explained this as much of past practice is educationally sound and should not be discarded (p. 37). Having said this, it is important to differentiate instructional supervision from evaluation. Authors described the former as a formative approach and the later as a summative approach (Poole, 1994; Zepeda, 2007). Poole (1994) stated that instructional supervision is a formative process that emphasizes collegial examination of teaching and learning (p. 305). In this regard, participants in the supervision process plan and implement a range of professional growth opportunities designed to meet teachers professional growth and educational goals and objectives at different levels. Teacher evaluation, on the other hand, is a summative process that focus on assessing the compete nce of teachers, which involves a formal, written appraisal or judgment of an individuals professional competence at specific time (Poole, 1994, p. 305). The supervisory (formative) and evaluative (summative) processes should go hand in hand (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). While supervision is essential for teachers professional growth, evaluation is essential to determine this growth and teacher effectiveness (Kutsyuruba, 2003; Wareing, 1990). The widely used approaches to evaluation are administrative monitoring, report writing, checklists, and self-assessment. On the other hand, approaches to supervision are categorized as clinical supervision, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, mentoring, self-reflection, professional growth plans, and portfolios (Alfonso Firth, 1990; Clarke, 1995; Poole, 1994; Reninan, 2002; Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007; Zepeda, 2007). Implementing different supervisory approaches is essential not only to give choices to teachers; it is also important to provide choices to the administrators and schools (Kutsyuruba, 2003). Each component of supervisory approaches are discussed as follows. Clinical Supervision According to Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), clinical supervision is a face- to- face contract with teachers with the intent of improving instruction and increasing professional growth (p. 23). It is a sequential, cyclic and systematic supervisory process which involves face-to-face interaction between teachers and supervisors designed to improve the teachers classroom instructions (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The purpose of clinical supervision according to Snow-Gerono (2008) is to provide support to teachers (to assist) and gradually to increase teachers abilities to be self-supervising (p. 1511). Clinical supervision is a specific cycle or pattern of working with teachers (Sergiovanni Starratt, 1993, p. 222). It is a partnership in inquiry where by the person assuming the role of supervisor functions more as an individual with experience and insight than as an expert who determines what is right and wrong (Harris, 1985). Goldhammer, Anderson and Karjewski (1980) described the structure o f clinical supervision that includes pre-observation conference, class room observation, analysis and strategy, supervision conference, and post-conference analysis. Clinical supervision is officially applicable with: inexperienced beginning teachers, teachers are experiencing difficulties, and experienced teachers who are in need of improving their instructional performance. Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that clinical supervision is typically formative than summative in its evaluative approach in order to enable beginning teaches collaborate to research their practices and improve their teaching and learning (p. 233). As a result of this, the writers further described that the focus of clinical supervision is not on quality control, rather on the professional improvement of the teacher that guarantees quality of teaching and students performance (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Collaborative Supervision Collaboration and collegially are very important in todays modern schools. According to Burke and Fessler (1983), teachers are the central focuses of collaborative approach to supervision. Collaborative approaches to supervision are mainly designed to help beginning teachers and those who are new to a school or teaching environment with the appropriate support from more experienced colleagues. Thus, these colleagues have an ethical and professional responsibility of providing the required type of support upon request (Kutsyuruba, 2003). In this regard, a teacher who needs collegial and collaborative support should realize that needs do not exist for professional growth, that feedback from colleagues and other sources should be solicited in order to move toward improvement (Burke Fessler, 1983, p.109). The major components of collaborative approaches to supervision which are especially needed for beginner or novice teachers are: peer coaching, cognitive coaching and mentoring (Shower s Joyce, 1996; Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007; Sullivan Glanz, 2003; Kutsyuruba, 2003). Peer coaching Peer coaching, according to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), is defined as teachers helping teachers reflect on and improve teaching practice and/or implement particular teaching skills needed to implement knowledge gained through faculty or curriculum development (p. 215). The term coaching is introduced to characterize practice and feedback following staff development sessions. According to Singhal (1996), supervision is more effective if the supervisor follows the team approach. This would mean that the supervisor should have a clear interaction with teachers and group of teachers, provide an open, but supportive atmosphere for efficient communication, and involve them in decision making. The goal of coaching as described by Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), is to develop communities within which teachers collaborate to honor a very simple value- when we learn together, we learn more, and when we learn more, we will more effectively serve our students (p. 251). Thus, peer coaching provid es possible opportunities to beginner teachers to refine teaching skills through collaborative relationships, participatory decision making, and immediate feedback (Bowman McCormick, 2000; Sullivan Glanz, 2000). In this regard, research findings showed that beginning teachers rated experienced teachers who coached than as highly competent and the process itself as very necessary (Kutsyuruba, 2003). Cognitive coaching According to Costa and Garmston (1994), cognitive coaching refers to a nonjudgmental process built around a planning conference, observation, and a reflecting conference (p. 2). Cognitive coaching differs from peer coaching in that peer coaching focuses on innovations in curriculum and instructions, where as cognitive coaching is aimed at improving existing practices (Showers Joyce, 1996). As Beach and Reinhartz (2000) described, cognitive coaching pairs teacher with teacher, teacher with supervisor, or supervisor with supervisor, however, when two educators are in similar roles or positions, the process is referred as peer supervision. The writers further identified three components of cognitive coaching: planning, lesson observation, and reflection. Costa and Garmston (1994) described three basic purposes of cognitive coaching, namely: (1) developing and maintaining trusting relationship; (2) fostering growth toward both autonomous and independent behavior; and (3) promoting learning. In a cognitive coaching process, teachers learn each other, built mutual trust, and encouraged to reach at a higher level of autonomy- the ability to self-monitor, self-evaluate, and self-analyze (Garmston, Linder Whitaker, 1993). Mentoring Mentoring as defined by Sullivan and Glanz (2000) is a process that facilitates instructional improvement wherein an experienced educator agrees to provide assistance, support, and recommendations to another staff member (p. 213). Mentoring is a form of collaborative (peer) supervision focused on helping new teachers or beginning teachers successfully learn their roles, establish their self images as teachers figure out the school and its culture, and understand how teaching unfolds in real class rooms (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated the works of mentors as: The mentor can work with a novice or less experienced teacher collaboratively, nonjudgmentally studying and deliberating on ways instruction in the class room may be improved, or the mentor can share expertise in a specific area with other educators. Mentors are not judges or critics, but facilitators of instructional improvement. All interactions and recommendations between the mentor and staff members are confidential. (p. 213) Research projects and publications revealed that mentoring has clear connections with supervision and professional development which serve to augment the succession planning and professional development of teachers (Reiman Thies-Sprinthall, 1998).In addition, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) described that the emphasis of mentoring on helping new or beginner teachers is typically useful for mentors as well. By helping a colleague (beginner teacher), mentors able to see their problems more clearly and to learn ways to overcome them. As a result, mentoring is the kind of relationship in which learning benefits everyone involved. Self-Reflection As the context of education is ever changing, teachers should have a professional and ethical responsibility to reflect on what is happening in response to changing circumstances. Thus, they can participate in collective reflection practices such as peer coaching, cognitive coaching, or mentoring, as well as self-assessment reflective practices (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Glatthorn (1990), self- directed development is a process by which a teacher systematically plans for his or her own professional growth in teaching. Glatthorn further described that self-directed approaches are mostly ideal for teachers who prefer to work alone or who, because of scheduling or other difficulties, are unable to work cooperatively with other teachers. Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) considered this option to be efficient in use of time, less costly, and less demanding in its reliance on others. Thus, the writers indicated that in self-directed supervision teachers work alone by assuming responsi bility for their own professional development (p. 276). Furthermore, Glatthorn (1990) suggested that self-development is an option provided for teachers that enable them to set their own professional growth goals, find the resources needed to achieve those goals, and undertake the steps needed to accomplish those outcomes (p. 200). In addition, this approach is particularly suited to competent and experienced teachers who are able to manage their time well (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Portfolios As teachers want to be actively participated in their own development and supervision, they need to take ownership of the evaluation process (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The best way for teachers to actively involve in such practices is the teaching portfolio (Painter, 2001). A teaching portfolio is defined as a process of supervision with teacher compiled collection of artifacts, reproductions, testimonials, and student work that represents the teachers professional growth and abilities (Riggs Sandlin, 2000). A portfolio, according to Zepeda (2007), is an individualized, ongoing record of growth that provides the opportunity for teachers to collect artifacts over an extended period of time (p. 85). Similarly, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that the intent of portfolio development is to establish a file or collection of artifacts, records, photo essays, cassettes, and other materials designed to represent some aspect of the class room program and teaching activities. As Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated portfolio documents not only innovative and effective practices of teachers, but also it is a central road for teachers professional growth through self-reflection, analysis, and sharing with colleagues through discussion and writing (p. 215). The writers further described that portfolio can be used to support and enrich mentoring and coaching relationships. Professional Growth Plans Professional growth plans are defined as individual goal-setting activities, long term projects teachers develop and carry out relating to the teaching (Brandt, 1996, p. 31). This means that teachers reflect on their instructional and professional goals by setting intended outcomes and plans for achieving these goals. In professional growth plans as part of instructional supervisory approach, teachers select the skills they wish to improve, place their plan in writing including the source of knowledge, the type of workshop to be attended, the books and articles to read, and practice activities to be set. In this regard, Fenwick (2001) stated that professional growth plans could produce transformative effects in teaching practice, greater staff collaboration, decreased teacher anxiety, and increased focus and commitment to learning (p. 422). Summative Evaluation There is a clear link among instructional supervision, professional development and teacher evaluation (Zepeda, 2007). Teacher evaluation involves two distinct components: formative evaluation and summative evaluation (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). The writers differentiated formative teacher evaluation as an approach intended to increase the effectiveness of ongoing educational programs and teachers professional growth, where as summative teacher evaluation is designed to judge and rate the quality of ones own teaching and level of professional growth. In this regard, the purposes of instructional supervision are formative- focused on teachers ongoing professional development, and the intents of evaluation are summative- assessment of professional performance which leads to a final judgment (Zepeda, 2007). However, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that both formative and summative teacher evaluations cannot be separated, for each contains aspects of the other. Summative evalua tion, therefore, uses various techniques such as, administrative monitoring, report writing, checklists, and self-assessment tools (Kutsyuruba, 2003). 2.3 Teachers Perception of Supervisory Processes From laypersons conducting school inspection in the 18th century, up to the practice of neo-scientific management, instructional supervision in most schools of the world has focused on inspection and control of teachers (Alemayehu, 2008). According to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), historically the evaluation function of supervision was rooted in bureaucratic inspectional type supervision (p. 22). The writers further described that teachers view supervision for the sake of evaluation as often being anything other than up lifting. In a study of supervision and teacher satisfaction, Fraser (1980) stated that the improvement of the teaching learning process was dependent upon teacher attitudes toward supervision (p. 224). The writer noted that unless teachers perceive supervision as a process of promoting professional growth and student learning, the supervisory practice will not bring the desired effect. Kapfunde (1990) stated that teachers usually associate instructional supervision with appraisal, rating, and controlling them. In Ethiopia, many teachers resent or even fear being supervised because of the history of supervision, which has always been biased towards evaluation or inspection (Haileselassie, 1997). Regarding the challenges of teachers, it is stated in various literatures that beginning teachers face more challenges than more experienced teachers. Teaching has been a career in which the greatest challenge and most difficult responsibilities are faced by those with the least experience (Glickman, Gordon Ross-Gordon, 1998, p. 21). At least 30 percent of beginning teachers leave the profession during the first two years (Casey Mitchell, 1996). For many less experienced teachers, supervision is viewed as a meaningless exercise that has little value than completion of the required evaluation form (Sergiovanni Starratt, 1998). The writers further described that no matter h ow capable are designated supervisors, as long as supervision is viewed as doing something to teachers and for teachers, its potential to improve schools will not be fully realized (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007, p. 5). Teachers do not perceive supervision as helpful for their teaching and professional growth when its approach is focused on teacher appraisal and efficiency (Acheson Gall, 1992; Zepeda Ponticell, 1998). Various literatures identified supervision to be unfamiliar with most teachers because of its evaluative structure (Acheson Gall, 1992). According to Smyth (1991), the cause for resistance to supervisory practices by most teachers is the hierarchical and explotative form of teacher evaluation introduced by some types of supervision. In line with this, Acheson and Gall (1992) said that the hostility of teachers is not towards supervision but the supervisory styles teachers typically receive. Thus, selecting and applying supervisory models aimed at teachers instructional improvement and professional growth is imperative to develop a sense of trust, autonomy, and professional learning culture (Hargreaves Fullan, 2000). 2.4 Relationship between Instructional Supervision and Professional Development The overall purpose of instructional supervision is to help teachers improve, and this improvement could be on what teachers know, the improvement of teaching skills, as well as teachers ability to make more informed professional decisions (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). According to Zepeda (2007), there must be a clear connection of instructional supervision to professional development and teacher evaluation. She added that the various models or approaches of instructional supervision such as clinical supervision, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, mentoring, etc. bridge instructional supervision and professional development. Instructional supervision, with its focus on collegiality and professional improvement, is an important tool in building an effective teachers professional development. Instructional supervision is an organizational function concerned with teacher growth, leading to improvement in teaching performance and greater student learning (Nolan Hoover, 2008, p. 6). It is clear that continuous improvement in methods and skills is necessary for every professional, and so the professional development of teachers has become highly important (Anderson Snyder, 1998; Carter, 2001; Zepeda, 2007). Professional development is an important part of an ongoing teacher education concerned with improving teachers instructional methods, their classroom management skills, their ability to adapt to instruction to meet students needs, and establishing a professional culture which is important in teaching and learning (Wanzare Da Costa, 2000). Professional development gives emphasis on the development of professional expertise by involving teachers in a problem solving and action research (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Sullivan (1997) on the other hand, stated that as fields of educational development, instructional supervision and professional development are interlinked and can and should overlap as needs and local preferences dictate (p. 159). From the supervisors view point, professional development emphasizes providing teachers with the opportunity and resources they need to reflect on their practice and to share their practice with others (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007, p. 216). Instructional supervision and professional development are linked in several ways. As McQuarrie and Wood (1991) noted one connection to be through the use of data obtained from supervisional practices used in planning and implementing staff development as part of instructional improvement and helping teachers improve their skills. The writers further stated that both instructional supervision and professional development: (1) focus on teacher effectiveness in class room; (2) may be provided by teachers, supervisors, and administrators; (3) are judgment-free practices that improve teachers instructional activities in a collaborative ways; and (4) promote in their participants a sense of ownership, commitment, and trust toward instructional improvement. Anything supervisors can perform to help teachers develop and strengthen becomes an investment in promoting professional development (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). And thus, professional development allows teachers to make their own decisions regarding their knowledge and skills improvement and to assume personal accountability (Retting, 1999; Kaagan, 2004). Professional development needs of beginner teachers differ from those experienced teachers, and special supervisory approaches should be developed to meet these needs (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Glatthorn (1990), beginning teachers are characterized by their preferences for certain types of supervisory approaches. Most importantly, they need intensive assistance of clinical supervision. Similarly, they need mentoring, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, and other collegial supervisory approaches. The writer further noted that experienced teachers also have their own special professional development needs and preferences. Most experienced teachers can benefit from collaborative and self-directed supervisional practices which will foster continuous professional growth and development. In general, instructional supervision is an ongoing process which enables teachers the opportunity to develop professionally and different supervisory options should be provided for different teachers based on their experience and level of difficulty.

Risperdal :: Drugs Schizophrenia Essays

Risperdal Risperidone is an atypical antipsychotic used to alleviate the symptoms of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is defined by its effects in altering perception, thoughts, or consciousness called hallucinations or delusions. It affects about 1% of the population, with about 2 million people affected in the United States. About 50% of those affected become severely and permanently disabled and dependent upon public assistance. Schizophrenics make up about 10% of the totally disabled population and as much as 14% of the homeless. The United States spends about $70 billion annually. About 1 out of 4 patients will attempt suicide, and 1 in 10 will succeed. There is great social stigma associated with the disease (Sarason & Sarason, 2001, pg. 350). The dopamine theory behind the cause of schizophrenia states that in part excess dopamine is a possible factor or there is more than an average number of dopamine, Type 2 receptors. Risperidone acts on the dopamine D2 receptor (Sarason, et al, 2001, pg. 368). Risperidone is a psychotropic drug and is part of the chemical class of benzisoxazole derivatives used as a treatment for schizophrenia, with some results for bipolar manic disorder, as well. The molecular formula is C23H27FN4O2, with a molecular weight of 410.49 (Ereshefsky & Mascarena, 2003). Route of administration is oral. Once the drug passes the esophagus and stomach, it makes its way into the small intestines. There are beds of capillaries within the intestine walls.